Why Trust Science? Read online

  authoritarianism, 27, 84, 259n31

  autism, 15, 63, 108, 129, 132, 154, 275n114

  Ayer, A. J., 24–25, 29, 236

  Ayurvedic medicine, 62

  AZT, 64

  Bacon, Francis, 22, 33

  Baliani, Gianbattista, 188

  Barad, Karen, 280n202

  Bargh, John, 203

  Barnes, Barry, 44–45

  Bayer Pharmaceuticals, 206, 236

  BBC, 204, 231–32, 290n22

  Bechtel, Bill, 276n137

  Beck, Glenn, 282n23

  Bem, Daryl, 203

  Berger, Peter L., 262n70

  Bernal, J. D., 97

  Bernard, Claude, 36, 52

  Berry, Edward, 82

  bias: assimilation and, 204–5; balancing of, 59; birth control and, 107–8; class, 97, 249; Comte and, 20; continental drift and, 82; dental floss and, 120; diversity and, 249; epistemologies and, 51–59, 175, 178–79; eugenics and, 97; false conclusions and, 7; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; homogeneous groups and, 249; humility and, 7; industry funding and, 73, 208, 210, 236–40; inherent, 7; journals and, 209, 235, 263n91; Limited Energy Theory and, 249; mass media and, 232, 236, 263n91; ontological relativism and, 263n89; personal, 144; rationalistic, 284n4; reliable knowledge and, 135; replication issues and, 11–12, 204–7, 228, 232, 236, 239, 290n23; sampling, 107; scientific papers and, 204–6; Stanford prison experiment and, 232

  Bible, 148, 158, 282n26

  Big Bang theory, 190

  Billings, Marland, 86

  biodiversity, 8, 156, 158, 195, 223–25

  Biological Basis of Human Nature (Jennings), 102, 274n99

  biomedicine, 11–12, 121, 146, 229–30, 235–36, 292n46

  biometrics, 92, 97

  birth control: bias and, 107–8; consensus and, 128; Danish study of, 107–9, 114–15; depression and, 2, 5–6, 104–17, 140; hypotheses and, 116; male, 113, 276n129; mood changes and, 107, 109, 112, 114; patients and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; psychiatrists and, 109–12; public health officials and, 117; scientific method and, 107–8, 113–14, 117; Seaman and, 109–11, 136; self-reporting and, 107–9, 113; suicide and, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121; Swedish study on, 110

  blood pressure, 113, 250–54, 294n14

  Bloor, David, 44, 46, 220, 258n13, 263n83

  Boas, Franz, 96–97

  Bohm, David, 171

  Brewer, Priscilla, 284n3

  British Association of Dermatologists, 254

  bronchitis, 65

  Bronowski, Jacob, 167

  Brookhaven Laboratory, 170

  Brown, Nick, 234

  Bryan, William Jennings, 8

  Buckley, William F., 263n91

  Buck v. Bell, 78, 88, 272n75

  Building of the Brain, The (Clarke), 270n40

  Busch, Jane, 284n3

  Bush, George H. W., 148

  Bush, Vannevar, 167–68

  caloric theory of heat, 19

  cancer, 243, 281n14; chemotherapy and, 170; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and, 115; GcMAF and, 243; periodontal disease and, 123; skin, 252–54; sunscreen and, 252–54; tobacco industry and, 65, 115, 239

  Carnap, Rudolf, 25

  Carson, Ben, 15

  Cartwright, Nancy, 126, 164, 278n166

  Castelli, Benedetto, 188

  Catholicism, 64, 148, 151, 156–58, 273n78, 291n13

  Cato Institute, 282n23, 293n3

  cavities, 70, 119–20, 122, 126

  Cell journal, 205, 242

  cell phones, 217–19

  Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, 84–86, 103

  chemical weapons, 166–67, 169, 177

  Chernobyl, 279n192

  Christians, 8, 21, 129, 148–49, 153, 155–57, 228, 273n78, 282n26

  Ciancio, Sebastian G., 125–26

  circularity, 9, 181–82, 185, 221–22

  civilizational knowledge, 62–63

  Clarke, Edward H.: The Building of the Brain and, 270n40; and higher education for women, 76–80, 89, 135–39, 226–27, 270n33, 270n40; Jacobi and, 5, 79–80, 136, 249; menstruation and, 78–80; Sex in Education; or, a Fair Chance for Girls and, 76–78, 270n33, 270n40

  classical mechanics, 19

  Clausius, Rudolf, 76

  climate change: American consumers and, 148; anthropogenic, 17, 65, 72, 95, 129, 140, 142, 148, 154–55, 193, 217, 223–26, 230, 245; authority issues and, 69, 71–72; carbon sequestration and, 240; confusion over, 15, 18, 69, 71–73, 119, 142–43, 155; consensus on, 1, 6–7, 10, 12–13, 18, 95, 129–30, 142, 149, 175, 192, 224, 226, 228, 293n3; Cruz and, 293n3; denial of, 6, 87, 119, 153, 155–58, 175, 179, 222, 225, 245, 266n130, 282n23, 293n3; Earth’s surface temperatures and, 230; economic issues and, 1, 12, 17–18, 63, 145, 191–92, 218, 224–25; environmentalists and, 18; evidence and, 6, 17, 63, 65, 140, 142, 145, 153–54, 192, 195, 217, 229–30, 235, 293n3; extreme weather and, 1, 15, 140, 245; global warming and, 1, 229–30, 293n3; as hoax, 119, 245, 293n3; human activities and, 1–2; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and, 17, 59, 194, 225–26, 287n3; liberals and, 145; Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change and, 10; Papal Encyclical on Climate Change and, 228; petroleum industry and, 4, 17–18, 63, 65, 67, 142, 225; polar vortex and, 1; policy assessments and, 191–95, 200, 223–24; politics and, 18, 63, 95, 190, 218, 293n3; Pope Francis and, 157, 228; published papers on, 112; religion and, 155–58, 217–18, 227–28; reversing effects of, 7; skepticism and, 4, 8, 12, 17, 73, 140, 148, 153, 192–93, 266n130, 283n29, 284n1; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; sunspots and, 63; Trump and, 10, 13, 191–92, 194, 293n3; UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and, 148, 226; values and, 148, 153–58, 282n23

  climate science: air pollution and, 194; consensus on, 112, 174; Crichton and, 95, 99, 271n57; Democrats and, 148; economics and, 12, 130, 147, 149, 218; environmentalism and, 8, 193; future of humanity and, 2; greenhouse gases and, 1, 15, 65, 134, 230; induced migrations and, 1; Obama and, 191–92; petroleum industry and, 67, 130; policy assessments and, 191–201, 224; public opinion on, 12; religion and, 149, 155, 158, 217–18, 227–28; Republicans and, 148; rising sea levels and, 1; Robinson and, 174, 284n1; skepticism of, 8, 73, 235, 257n1, 284n1, 293n3; values and, 153; weather forecasting and, 152

  Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 120–23, 126

  cognitive dissonance, 204

  Colbert, Stephen, 70

  Cold War, 151, 166, 170–71, 173, 176, 215–17

  collective activity: critical evaluation and, 68, 246–48; epistemologies and, 174; Fleck and, 3, 28–32, 39–41, 260n39, 261n69; interrogation and, 58; Longino and, 50, 52; observation of natural world and, 246; reliable knowledge and, 139; science and, 2–3, 28–32, 39, 50, 52, 58, 68, 139, 174, 203, 246–48, 260n39; social accomplishment and, 50

  Collins, Harry, 45

  communism, 29, 168, 171–73, 259n31, 285n21

  Comte, Auguste, 20–25, 29, 42, 48, 64, 182, 259n25

  Conant, James, 39

  conflict of interest, 4–5, 65–68, 121, 132–33, 237, 266n136, 290n26

  Conjectures and Refutations (Popper), 27

  conscience clause, 218

  consensual process, 3, 19, 55, 60, 149

  consensus: age of Earth and, 16; American Enterprise Institute and, 18; birth control and, 128; climate change and, 1, 6–7, 10, 12–13, 18, 95, 129–30, 142, 149, 175, 192, 224, 226, 228, 293n3; continental drift and, 81; crisis in science and, 13; dental floss and, 128; epistemologies and, 55, 58, 164, 174–75, 222–23; ethics and, 10, 228; eugenics and, 95, 104, 142; evidence and, 6, 13, 104, 127–28, 142, 233, 250, 293n3; experts and, 4, 6–7, 12–13, 129, 141–43, 149, 192, 222–23, 234, 249, 275n109; Limited Energy Theory and, 128; peer review and, 130–31; policy assessments and, 10, 192; reliability of, 2, 4, 6, 12, 127–33; religion and, 228; scientific community and, 4, 7, 18, 55, 81, 129, 142–43, 174, 226, 250, 275n109; scientific method and, 2, 6, 55, 127, 149, 249–50; single authors and, 227; skepticism and, 127, 233; sunscreen and, 255; tr
ustworthiness and, 2, 6, 174; truth and, 222, 249; vaccinations and, 218

  conservation of energy, 35, 38, 76, 138

  conservation of mass, 35, 180

  conservatives, 30, 130, 148, 155, 199, 263n91, 264n92

  constructivism, 175–76, 198–99, 202, 220, 262n70, 287n5

  contestation, 129, 246, 248

  continental drift, 5; bias and, 82; consensus and, 81; Daly and, 86; deduction and, 82–86; evidence and, 79, 81–82, 86–87; experience and, 82–83, 86; Gondwana and, 87; hypotheses and, 82–86; induction and, 250; plate tectonics and, 39, 69–70, 74, 81, 86, 173, 280n203; rejection of, 80–87; scientific method and, 82–86; scientific theories and, 83; Wegener and, 81–82, 86–87, 139, 146, 261n53; Willis and, 82–84

  contraction theory, 19

  Conway, Erik, 13, 18, 67, 130, 153, 224, 245–46, 292n44

  Cook, James, 62

  Cook, John, 218

  Copernican Revolution, The (Kuhn), 39, 42

  co-production, 71, 267n3

  corpuscular theory, 35

  Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 284n3

  Creation, 8, 16–17, 156, 158

  creationism, 16–17, 148, 158, 179, 182

  Creation Ministries International, 69

  Cree people, 62

  Crichton, Michael, 95, 99, 271n57

  critical interrogation, 58–60, 68, 137, 246, 266n136, 284n2

  critical positivity ratio, 234–35

  critical rationalism, 26–28, 259n31

  Cropsey, Joseph, 257n4

  Cruz, Ted, 293n3

  Daly, Reginald, 86

  Darwin, Charles, 31, 70, 79, 89–90, 167, 270n33, 274n97

  Davenport, Charles, 92–93, 133, 139, 272n71

  Dawkins, Richard, 70

  de Broglie, Louis, 33–34, 260n47

  decline effect, 203–4

  deduction: Bechtel and, 276n137; continental drift and, 82–86; eugenics and, 89, 95; hypothetico-deductive approach and, 82–83, 219; Kuhn and, 186–87; Limited Energy Theory and, 76, 79, 95, 135; observation and, 25; rival paradigms and, 186–87

  democracy, 6, 84, 99, 167–68, 203, 223, 282n23

  Democrats, 17, 71, 148, 203

  dental floss: American Dental Association and, 126; bias and, 120; cavities and, 119–20, 122, 126; Cochrane review on, 120–23, 126; confusion over, 15; consensus and, 128; ethics and, 124; evidence and, 6, 118–27, 154; experience and, 124–25; gingivitis and, 121–23, 126, 134; gum disease and, 119, 125; Iafolla and, 118; journals and, 119; media on, 118–21, 124, 126–27; patients and, 122–25; periodontal disease and, 123, 125–26; plaque and, 120, 122–23, 125, 277n162; public health officials and, 119; reliable knowledge and, 133–34; social consequences and, 18; trials on, 121–26

  depression: birth control and, 2, 5–6, 104–17, 140; experience and, 5–6, 104–7, 110, 112, 114; mood changes and, 107, 109, 112, 114; patients and, 104, 108–11, 114–15, 117; Prozac and, 114; psychiatrists and, 109–12; public health officials and, 117; serotonin and, 113–14, 134, 215; suicide and, 109–10, 113, 117, 275n121; Zoloft and, 114

  dermatologists, 250–55

  Descartes, René, 29, 183

  Descent of Man, The (Darwin), 89–90

  determinism, 102

  de Vries, Hugo, 92

  Dewey, John, 10, 197–99

  deWolf Smyth, Henry, 171–72, 285n13

  diabetes, 65

  Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 118–19

  diphtheria, 16

  disbelief, 26, 44

  disclosure, 66, 237, 243, 269n14, 272n66

  disinformation, 62, 67, 218, 240, 245, 268n13

  diversity: bias and, 249; biodiversity and, 8, 156, 158, 195, 223–25; Creation and, 8, 156, 158; demographic, 144, 263n90; epistemologies and, 4, 50–59, 145–46; evidence and, 143–44; experts and, 4, 7, 13, 132, 246; gender, 144; importance of, 249, 262n82, 264n100; intellectual, 263n90; objectivity and, 4; open discussion and, 145; perspectival, 144; physics and, 280n202; policy assessments and, 195, 200, 223–25; protecting Earth’s, 157–58; reliable knowledge and, 132, 136–37; scientific communities and, 14; scientific method and, 143, 246, 250; scientific theories and, 7, 219; values and, 156–58

  Doctor’s Case against the Pill, The (Seaman), 109–10

  doctrine: empiricism and, 37; eugenics and, 100; positive knowledge and, 20; religious, 150; scientific method and, 20

  dogmatism, 36–37, 67, 84–86, 260n39

  Donn, Jeff, 119–21, 124

  Donne, John, 158

  Douglas, Heather, 145, 281n3, 283n28

  Duesberg, Peter H., 146, 280n205

  Duhem, Pierre: Duhem-Quine thesis, 37–39, 190; empiricism and, 4, 32–39, 48, 190, 260n40, 260n45, 260n47, 261n56, 261n58; experiments and, 34, 37, 260n45, 261n56, 261n58

  Earth Institute, 17

  Earth Summit, 148

  economic issues, 267n3; climate change and, 1, 12, 17–18, 63, 130, 145, 191–92, 218, 224–25; eugenics and, 90, 99–100; free market and, 1, 149; laissez-faire, 17–18, 225; policy assessments and, 191–93, 199; positive knowledge and, 263n87; reliable knowledge and, 130, 133; science and, 1, 12, 63, 130, 133, 145, 147–51, 173, 191–93, 204–7, 217, 224–25; values and, 147–51

  Edenhofer, Ottmar, 10, 12, 191–201, 223–28

  Edgerton, David, 178

  Edinburgh school, 44–49

  Einstein, Albert, 31, 53, 175, 218, 232–33, 260n47

  emphysema, 66

  empiricism: absolutism and, 46, 48; Ayer and, 24–25, 29, 236; challenges to, 26–39; co-production and, 71, 267n3; doctrine and, 37; Duhem and, 32–39, 48; evidence and, 32, 34, 37–38, 79, 81–82, 86, 140, 221, 230, 246, 264n100, 270n40; evolution and, 31, 71; experience and, 26, 30, 38; experiments and, 26, 33–39; experts and, 267n3; falsehoods and, 24–27, 37; Fleck and, 28–32, 39–41; hypotheses and, 26, 33–36; informed dissent and, 128; journals and, 32; logical, 24–26, 46, 259n26; objectivity and, 4; observation and, 24–27, 30, 32, 34; Popper and, 3, 26–29, 40, 42, 46–48; rationalism and, 26–28, 259n31, 284n4; religion and, 24, 30; scientific method and, 24–39, 79; skepticism and, 26, 28, 36–37, 259n31; truth and, 24, 32; under-determination and, 10, 32–39, 43, 190; varieties of, 24–26; verification and, 3, 24–27, 40

  energeticism, 270n26

  environmentalism: air pollution and, 194; American consumers and, 148; climate science and, 8, 18, 193; Earth Summit and, 148; eugenics and, 92, 94, 100, 102–3; extended evolutionary synthesis (EES) and, 60; extreme weather and, 1, 15, 140; global warming and, 1, 229–30, 293n3; greenhouse gases and, 1, 15, 65, 134, 230; Paris Agreement and, 287n3; petroleum industry and, 239; policy assessments and, 225; social costs of carbon (SCC) and, 191–92; values and, 8

  Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 115, 191

  epistemologies: bias and, 51–59, 175, 178–79; collective activity and, 174; consensus and, 55, 58, 164, 174–75, 222–23; diversity and, 4, 50–59; ethics and, 145; everyday trust and, 9, 163–66, 177–79; evidence and, 49, 57, 59, 164, 178; evolution and, 167, 174–75, 180; experience and, 50–51, 169, 172–80; experiments and, 53, 174; experts and, 56–58, 171, 173, 177; hypotheses and, 55, 185; journals and, 58; Merton and, 43, 150–51, 155; moral issues and, 145, 164–71, 177; objectivity and, 50–54, 58–59; observation and, 52; philosophy and, 54–55, 164, 167, 171–72; Popper and, 29; reliable knowledge and, 165; scientific method and, 52, 55, 177; scientific theories and, 51, 55, 173, 179; situated knowledge and, 175–76; skepticism and, 56, 59, 74, 163, 173; social, 49–55; technology and, 9, 164–69, 175, 178–80, 215–21; truth and, 50, 165, 169, 175, 177, 179; vaccinations and, 170, 175, 179

  equality, 11, 98, 198

  estrogen, 113, 117, 125

  ethics: consensus and, 10, 228; dental floss and, 124; epistemologies and, 145; National Bioethics Advisory Commission and, 143; policy assessments and, 193, 196–200; religion and, 44, 158, 227; values and, 10, 44, 61, 124, 143, 145, 158, 193, 196–200, 227–28, 265n117, 287n5; weapons and, 166–70, 177, 179, 216

  eugenics: B
ernal and, 97; bias and, 97; biometrics and, 92, 97; Buck v. Bell and, 78, 88, 272n75; consensus and, 95, 104, 142; Davenport and, 92–93, 133, 139, 272n71; deduction and, 89, 95; diversity and, 145–46; doctrine and, 100; economic issues and, 90, 99–100; environmentalism and, 92, 94, 100, 102–3; evidence and, 96, 99, 102–4; evolution and, 89–90, 92, 103; experience and, 96; experiments and, 92, 103; experts and, 88, 275n109; feeblemindedness and, 87–88, 93, 272n75; feminism and, 273n78; Galton and, 89–91, 96, 98; Haldane and, 97–98, 138, 274n92; heredity and, 90, 92, 96–97, 100, 103; Hitler and, 88, 92; Holmes and, 88, 92; Huxley and, 97, 274n92, 274n97; immigration and, 89–97, 273n85; intelligence and, 90, 96–97, 100–101, 273n78; Jennings and, 102–4, 274n99; Jews and, 91, 96; journals and, 275n109; Lamarckian notions and, 92, 272n70; Laughlin and, 88–89, 93–94, 272n62; law of reversion to the mediocre and, 90–91; Limited Energy Theory and, 273n78; moral issues and, 61, 104; Muller and, 97–99, 138, 274n90, 274n92, 274n97; natalism and, 94–95; Nazis and, 5, 88, 91–94, 99; Pascal’s Wager and, 140–41; people of color and, 91, 98; phenotypic traits and, 87; positive, 91; principal components of, 94–95; racism and, 88–100; Roosevelt and, 87–88, 91; scientific method and, 92, 102, 104; scientific theories and, 95; socialism and, 273n86; as social movement, 92; soft, 271n61; sterilization and, 61, 78, 88, 93–94, 98, 101, 138, 272n62, 272n75, 274n97; Stump v. Sparkman and, 272n75; truth and, 100; women and, 78, 88, 91, 93, 95, 100–101

  Eugenics Records Office (ERO), 88, 92–94, 102, 272n71

  everyday trust, 9, 163–66, 177–79

  evidence: bias and, 7, 20, 51–59, 73, 82, 97, 107–8, 120, 135, 144, 175, 178–79, 204–5, 207, 209, 232, 236–37, 240, 249, 263n89, 263n91, 284n4; and birth control’s link to depression, 5–6, 109–10, 112, 115–17; climate change and, 6, 17, 63, 65, 140, 142, 145, 153–54, 192, 195, 217, 229–30, 235, 290n3; Comte and, 64; consensus and, 6, 13, 104, 127–28, 142, 233, 250, 293n3; continental drift and, 79, 81–82, 86–87; correlation and, 116–17; dental floss and, 6, 118–27, 154; dietary guidelines and, 118–19; discounting of, 104, 117, 133–34, 141, 153, 250, 263n88, 269n14; diversity and, 143–44; emotional contestation and, 248; empiricism and, 32, 34, 37–38, 79, 81–82, 86, 140, 221, 230, 246, 264n100, 270n40; epistemologies and, 49, 57, 59, 164, 178; eugenics and, 96, 99, 102–4; experts and, 6, 63, 65, 131, 142, 221, 246, 263n88, 267n3, 270n40; false, 7, 37, 46, 70, 115, 124, 142, 153; fraud and, 13, 231, 235–36, 240, 290n21, 291n37; historical, 18–19; hoaxes and, 119, 245, 291n37, 293n3, 293n55; induction and, 25–27, 34, 74, 82–84, 182, 185, 190; interpretation and, 30, 32, 86, 124, 128, 142, 186, 205, 248, 261n58; Krosnick and, 204, 209–10, 227–33, 236–38; objectivity and, 267n3; patient reports and, 275n113; peer review and, 3, 7, 9, 32, 53, 58, 66, 75, 130–31, 140, 145–46, 182, 221, 237, 240–41, 247, 252, 266n136, 293n55; pesticides and, 245; p-hacking and, 207, 229; policy assessments and, 192, 195, 226; Pope Francis and, 64; refutation and, 11, 13, 20, 27–28, 33, 36–40, 73, 117, 233, 258n13, 259n31, 259n33; reliable knowledge and, 128, 131, 133–36, 138, 233; replication issues and, 11–12, 205–8, 211, 228, 232, 236, 239, 242–43, 290n23; residual uncertainty and, 141–42; retractions and, 12–13, 203, 206, 228, 233–37, 247, 289n14, 291n37, 292n43; science in action and, 217; science studies and, 44–46, 49; scientific method and, 6–7, 34, 37, 49, 79, 82, 86, 117, 127, 133–34, 143, 211, 246, 250; statistics and, 12, 73–74, 102, 114–16, 122, 133–34, 209, 211, 229–30, 268n13, 275n116; sunscreen and, 13, 245, 250–55, 294n11, 294n13; tobacco industry and, 65–66, 290n26; vaccinations and, 275n114; values and, 6, 8, 65, 121, 127–28, 145, 153–54, 192, 211; vetted, 57, 63–64, 66, 69–70, 232